Minimal pairs: /e/ and /eɪ/

Ex. 1 Look at the following words containing the vowel /e/ and find their counterparts containing the diphthong /eɪ/.

bed, Ben, Bess, den, fell, gel, get, Jen, Ken, let, Mel, men, met, pen, red, rend, sell, tell, wed, well, when, wet, wreck, wren

Ex. 2 The following borrowings contain a final /-e/ in the original French. Which sound is used in English?

ballet, bouquet, chalet, crochet, duvet, fiancé(e), pâté, soirée, soufflé

KEY
1. bade, bane, base, Dane, fail, gaol/jail, gate, Jane, cane, late, mail/male, main/mane, mate, pain/pane, raid, rained, sale, tale, wade, wail, wane, wait, rake, rain

2. /-eɪ/ is pronounced because English phonology does not allow most short vowels to occur in the final position.

When in doubt in Exercise 2, I used the Cambridge Dictionary at dictionary.cambridge.org.

Weak forms

Some functional words exist in two forms: strong and weak. The strong form has a full vowel while in the weak form the vowel is reduced, e.g. to /ɪ/ or the schwa /ə/.

Ex. Write whether the underlined forms are strong or weak.

1. 'I have never been to Paris.' 'You have! We went there ten years ago.'
2. 'It was you who ate all the biscuits!' 'Me? What are you talking about?'
3. 'He is over there, on the chair.' 'Or is he?'
4. 'The woman we met is Brad Pitt's cousin.' 'The Brad Pitt's? It's incredible!'
5. 'Sheila can swim like a pro.' 'Yes, she can!'
6. 'Is my pencil on the shelf or under the sofa?' 'No, I said, "on the sofa".'
7. 'You simply must try it!' 'I'm full. I must've eaten too much earlier.'
8. 'Been is the past participle form of be.' 'All right. I've been told it's called the third verb form.'
9. 'I will be here tomorrow.' 'You will? I thought you were leaving at dawn.'
10. 'Meet me at five.' 'At five? Or after five?'

KEY
1. weak, strong, 2. strong, weak, 3. weak, strong, 4. weak, strong, 5. weak, strong, 6. weak, strong, 7. strong, weak, 8. strong, weak, 9. weak, strong, 10. weak, strong

Minimal pairs: /e/ and /ɜː/

Ex. Look at the following words containing the short vowel /e/ and find their counterparts containing the long vowel /ɜː/.

bed, Ben, bet, Beth, bled, deck, en (letter), Fens, lend, lent/Lent, Ned, nest, sled, ten, tent, wed, wedding, weld, west

Ex. 2. Would the answers to Ex. 1 be pronounced differently in a rhotic accent? Provide examples of such accents.

KEY
1. bird, burn, Bert, birth, blurred, Dirk, earn/urn, ferns, learned, learnt, nerd, nursed, slurred, turn, turned, word, wording, world, worst
2. Yes, all of the answers to Ex. 1. would contain /r/ following /ɜː/ in a rhotic accent, e.g. that of Standard American English, Canadian English, Irish English or Scottish English. Some sources use the symbol /ɝ/ instead.

The spelling of words containing /ɜː/

The spelling of words containing /ɜː/ can be tricky for speakers of languages such as Polish. The exercise below deals with some commonly mispronounced words.

Ex. Write the following words transcribed in IPA using ordinary English spelling. Then put them in groups according to the spelling of the vowel  /ɜː/.

a. /wɜːk/ b. /wɜːd/ c. /wɜːld/ d. /wɜːst/ e. /ˈmɜːki/ f. /fɜː/ g. /fɜːm/ h. /lɜːn/ i. /bɜːθ/ j. /fɜːn/ k. /kɜːs/ l. /'wɜːʃɪp/ m. /ˈtɜːtl̩/ n. /tɜːm/ o. /ˈtɜːki/, p. /'dʒɜːməni/ q. /'dʒɜːni/, r. /dʒɜːnl̩/

KEY

a. work, b. word, c. world, d. worst, e. murky, f. fir/fur, g. firm, h. learn, i. birth, j. fern, k. curse, l. worship, m. turtle, n. term, o. turkey/Turkey, p. Germany, q. journey, r. journal

EAR - learn

ER - fern, term, Germany

IR - fir, firm, birth

OR - work, word, world, worst, worship

OUR - journey, journal

UR - murky, fur, curse, turtle, turkey/Turkey

Minimal pairs: /ʊ/ and /uː/

Ex. 1 Look at the following words containing the short vowel /ʊ/ and find their counterparts containing the long vowel /uː/. N.B. Not all the examples are true minimal pairs, as in some of them the vowel /uː/ is preceded by the semi-vowel /j/.

could, full, good, nook, rebook, should, soot

Ex. 2 Write which of these words contain the following vowels: a. /ʊ/, b. /uː/, c. another vowel (which one?).

lust, flu, shoe, root, room, crust, butcher, punting, strewth, booking, brooch


KEY
1. cooed, fool, gooed (covered with goo), nuke, +/j/ rebuke +/j/, shooed, suit (optional /j/)
2. a. /ʊ/ butcher, booking, outlook /ˈaʊtlʊk/ 
b. /uː/ flu, shoe, root, strewth, news
c. /ʌ/ lust, crust, punting, /əʊ/ brooch (and /aʊ/ in the first syllable of 'outlook')
The word 'room' can have /ʊ/ or /uː/.

When in doubt, I used the Cambridge Dictionary website at https://dictionary.cambridge.org.

Minimal pairs: /ɒ/, /ɔː/ and /ɑː/ + British/American English

Ex. 1 Look at the following words containing the short vowel /ɒ/ and find their counterparts containing the long vowel /ɔː/.

bod, cod, cot, don/Don, god, Oz (Australia), sod it, stock, wad, what

Ex. 2 Look at the following words containing the short vowel /ɒ/ and find their counterparts containing the long vowel /ɑː/. Are these words minimal pairs in Standard American English?

Bobby, bot, cod, cot, comma, hot, logger, lock, mock, potty

Ex. 3 Look at the following words containing the long vowel /ɔː/ and find their counterparts containing the long vowel /ɑː/.

boar/bore, call, cord, core, dork, four, lord, more, ore, tore

KEY

1. bored, cord, court/caught, dawn/Dawn, gourd (also /gʊəd/), oars/ores, sordid, stalk/stork, ward, wart

2. Barbie, Bart, card, cart, calmer/karma, heart, lager, lark, mark, party

Standard American English does not have a short vowel /ɒ/ but uses long /ɑː/ instead. Since all of the words in the answer key contain postvocalic [r], which is pronounced in SAE but not British RP, the difference in American English would be that
of /ɑː/ and /ɑːr/, not /ɒ/ and /ɑː/.

3. bar, Carl, card, car, dark, far, lard, mar, are (full form), tar

Minimal pairs: /ʌ/ and /ɑː/

Ex. 1. Look at the following words containing the short vowel /ʌ/ and find their counterparts containing the long vowel /ɑː/.

buck, bud, budge, cup, cut, duck, dulling, hut, luck, muck, musk, must (full form), stuck, tusk

Ex. 2. The following words tend to be mispronounced by Polish speakers, who often use the vowel /a/, e.g. both love and laugh as /laf/ or /la:f/. Which of these words contain a. /ʌ/; b. /ɑː/; c. another vowel?

grass, mayor, front, doll, burn, parent, Dublin, dull, past, draft, bust, Hamburg, last, worry, darts


KEY Ex. 1. bark, bard, barge, carp, cart, dark, darling, heart, lark, mark, mask, mast, stark, task
Ex. 2. a. /ʌ/ front, Dublin, dull, bust, worry
b. /ɑː/ grass, past, draft, last, darts
c. burn, doll, parent, mayor, Hamburg

Minimal pairs: /æ/ and /ɑː/ + British/American English

Ex. 1. Look at the following words containing the short vowel /æ/ and find their counterparts containing the long vowel /ɑː/. Are these words minimal pairs in Standard American English?

at (full form), back, bad, badge, ban, bat, cat, cattle, chat, Dan, hat, lack, lad, mac, mat, pat, tat

Ex. 2. Which words have /æ/ in American English and /ɑː/ in Received Pronunciation? How about the vowels in the remaining words?

gas, aunt, pass, bath, father, pat, class, math(s), mass, answer, example, ask, can't, task, mask, last, clap, barn


KEY: Ex. 1. art, bark, bard, barge, barn, Bart, cart, cartel, chart, darn, heart, lark, lard, mark, mart, part, tart These words also contain /r/ in Standard US English, so they aren't minimal pairs.

Ex. 2. /æ/ in American English and /ɑː/ in RP: aunt, pass, bath, class, math(s), answer, example, ask, can't, task, mask, last 
/æ/ in both: gas, pat, mass, clap   /ɑː/ in both: father, barn (+ /r/ in US English)

Pronunciation: nonsense words

This exercise asks advanced English learners to use their general knowledge of English pronunciation in order to decide whether the following non-existent words could be used in English. It is similar to exercises that can be found in linguistics textbooks, e.g. The Study of Language by George Yule (Cambridge: CUP; I have the 2nd edition of 1996).

Ex. Look at the following words and their pronunciation. Would it be possible to have such words in English? If not, why not?

1. glom /glɒm/   2. sarpck /sɑːpk/   3. cra /kræ/   4. lpome /lpəʊm/   5. locious /'ləʊʃəs/   6. xane /kseɪn/   7. jooly /'dʒuːli/   8. lagly /'lægli/   9. ftroo /ftruː/   10. ippy /'ɪpi/   11. quider /'kwɪdə/   
12. ploh /ploh/   13. zock /zɒk/   14. drunting /'drʌntɪŋ/   15. toor /tuːr/

KEY: Possible: 1, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14
Impossible: 2 (the syllable-final cluster /-pk/); 3 (a full short vowel at the end of a word); 4 (the syllable-initial cluster /lp-/); 6 (the syllable-initial cluster /ks-/; a word spelt this way would have to begin with /z-/); 9 (the syllable initial cluster /ftr-/); 12 (word-final /h/); 15 (/uː/ is not followed by /r/; a word spelt this way would be pronounced like "tour").

Minimal pairs: /æ/ and /ʌ/

Ex. 1. Look at the following words containing the short vowel /æ/ and find their counterparts containing the short vowel /ʌ/.
ankle, bad, ban, bat, cat, dab, dad, dam, Dan, fan, hat, lack, mad, mash, nan, rag, ram, ran, rang, rash, rat, Sam, sap, stack, tag, tan

Ex. 2. Find five words which contain the vowel /ʌ/.

butcher, one, cute, look, plumber, rune, numb, body, minute, comb, crumbs, bury, Murphy, London, Boston, burn, room

KEY: Ex. 1. uncle, bud, bun, but (full form)/butt, cut, dub, dud, dumb, done, fun, hut, luck, mud, mush, nun, rug, rum, run, rung, rush, rut, some (full form), sup, stuck, tug, ton/tonne

Ex. 2. one, plumber, numb, crumbs, London

Halloween Special

Ex. Paraphrase the following sentences using the words provided so that the meaning remains as similar as possible.

1. What would you do if you saw a real vampire?
Supposing .....................................................................................................................
2. This is the most frightening film I've ever seen!
Never ...........................................................................................................................!
3. People believe that this castle has been haunted for centuries.
This castle is ................................................................................................................
4. There are rumours that a banshee can be seen wandering at night.
a. Rumour ....................................................................................................................
b. It is ..........................................................................................................................
5. The witch scared me out of my wits!
The witch ................................................... daylights ................................................!
6. I've never used a ouija board till now.
This is the ....................................................................................................................
7. It's impossible you saw H. P. Lovecraft in Providence. He's been dead for 81 years.
You can't .................................................................. He died .....................................
8. If you think Alien is based on a true story, you are crazy!
If you think Alien is based on a true story, you ............................................... belfry!
9. I can't stay up late - I get sleepy at 10 pm.
I can't stay up late - ...................................................................... pumpkin at 10 pm.
10. The scientist presented a terrible image of life after climate change.
The scientist ..................................... picture of life ............. wake of climate change.
11. Mr Smith says he was abducted by aliens.
Mr Smith considers ................................................... alien .......................................
12. Why don't you make your own Halloween costume?
How ...........................................................................................................................
13. When I scared Frances, she screamed loudly.
When I scared Frances, she .......................................................................... murder.

KEY
1. Supposing you saw a real vampire, what would you do?
2. Never (before) have I seen a more / such a frightening film!
3. This castle is believed to have been haunted for centuries.
4a. Rumour has it that a banshee can be seen ....
4b. It is rumoured that a banshee can be seen ...
5. The witch scared the living daylights out of me!
6. This is the first time I have used a ouija board.
7. You can't have seen HPL in Providence. He died 81 years ago.
8. ... you have bats in your belfry!
9. ... I turn into a pumpkin at 10 pm.
10. The scientist painted a grim picture of life in the wake of climate change.
11. Mr Smith considers himself to be/have been an alien abductee.
12. How about making your own Halloween costume?
13. ... she cried/yelled blue murder.

I used The free Dictionary at www.thefreedictionary.com to make sure I used the idioms correctly. Happy Halloween, whatever you are!

Minimal pairs: /e/ and /æ/

Both sounds are difficult for Polish learners. While pronouncing Polish /ɛ/ instead of English /e/ is not a problem that would lead to misunderstandings, using Polish /a/ or /ɛ/ (or even the nasal diphthong spelt <ę> in Polish) instead of /æ/ is admittedly a far greater obstacle to intelligibility. Speakers of other Slavic languages may find this exercise equally useful.

Ex. 1. Look at the following words containing the short vowel /e/ and find their counterparts containing the short vowel /æ/.

bed, beg, Ben, bet, dregs, fret, Jen (Jennifer), Ken, kept, leg, men, merry, neck, net, peck, pen, pent, pet, petty, rep, said, set, shell, spend, wrench

Ex. 2. In each set of words choose the one which does not contain the vowel /æ/.

a. mad, plan, Japan, Malta   b. hall, trap, hat, lap   c. lad, flat, wad, pad   d. tad, pack, paste, damp

e. tag, ball, span, lack   f. many, crammed, tan, ran

Key
Ex. 1. bad, bag, ban, bat, drags, frat (a fraternity in the USA), Jan (Janine), can, capped, lag, man, marry, knack, gnat, pack, pan, pant, pat/Pat, patty, rap, sad, sat, shall (full form), spanned, ranch (also with /ɑː/)
Ex. 2. a. Malta, b. hall, c. wad, d. paste, e. ball, f. many

Minimal pairs: /ɪ/ and /e/

The vowels /ɪ/ and /i/ are variants of one category whose use depends on the position of the vowel in a word. They are not interchangeable, however: it is impossible for speakers to pronounce /i/ instead of /ɪ/ in native English in any environment. 

Ex. I. Look at the following words containing the short vowel /ɪ/ and find their counterparts containing the short vowel /e/.

a. bill/Bill, bin, bit, bid, bliss   b. Brit, din, fill, fins, fitter   c. gin, git, gist, hill   d. Jill, kin, lid, list   e. mill, miss, mint, nick/Nick   f. nil, nit/knit, pig   g. pick, pin, Pippa, pit
h. rich, rid, rip, river, since   i. sit, sill, will, whipped, wrist   j. win, wince, whist, wit

Ex. II. Which words contain the vowel /i/? How is it usually spelt?

winner, lucky, firm, happy, chimpanzee, kitty, print, edgy, mill, witty, ginger, giddy, hill, wintry, binge, study, dear, womanly, hear, daily, greatest, weekly, birth, monthly, limp, thirty, thirteen, forty, fourteen, fifty

KEY
I. a. bell, Ben, bet, bed, bless; b. Brett, den, fell, Fens, feta (cheese); c. Jen, get, jest, hell; d. gel, Ken, led, lest; e. Mel, mess, meant, neck; f. knell/Nell, net, peg; g.peck, pen, pepper/Peppa, pet; h. wretch, red, rep, revver (engine), sense; i. set, sell, well, wept, rest; j. when, whence, west, wet

II. lucky, happy, kitty, edgy, witty, giddy, wintry, study, womanly, daily, weekly, monthly, thirty, forty, fifty
The usual spelling is <y>.

Minimal pairs: /iː/ and /ɪ/

A minimal pair is a pair of words which differ in terms of just one contrastive sound. In other words, they would be homophones (words pronounced identically) if it weren't for just one sound. For example, the words ship and sheep are a minimal pair, because the only sound that makes their pronunciation different is the vowel: ship has /ɪ/ while sheep contains /iː/. Here I omit technical terms such as phoneme or allophone or a discussion whether a long vowel can be treated as two vowel sounds rather than one since this is not a post about linguistics.

Ex. I. The words written below contain the short /ɪ/ sound. Find their counterparts containing long /iː/.

a. bin, bit, biz   b. did, dim, dip  c. fill, fist, fizz   d. gin, grid, grin, grit   e. hid, hip, hit   f. ill, is he (spoken fast)
g. kill, kin, kipper, knit   h. lid, lip, list, live (verb)   i. mid, mill  

Ex. II. The words written below contain the long /iː/ sound. Find their counterparts containing short /ɪ/.

a. kneel, peat, peak, peal/peel, peep   b. read, ream, reap, seal, seat, seen, seep   c. teal, team, teen, weep, ween, wheat, wheeze



KEY
I. a. bean/been, beat/beet, bees; b. deed, deem, deep; c. feel, feast, fees; d. Jean/Gene, greed, green, greet; e. heed, heap, heat; f. eel, easy; g. keel, keen, keeper, neat; h. lead (verb), leap, least, leave; i. mead, meal

II. a. nil, pit, pick, pill, pip; b. rid, rim, rip, sill, sit, sin, sip; c. till, Tim, tin, whip, win, wit, wiz

Pronunciation of the letter "y"

Ex. Look at the following words containing the letter "y" and put them in groups according to the sound that the letter "y" represents (sometimes together with a letter next to it).

1. /ɪ/ 2. /aɪ/ 3. /i/ 4. /eɪ/ 5. /j/

Aberystwyth, by, cry, deny, gym, flirty, happy, lucky, obey, Powys, sashay away, scruffy, stray, trolley, try, yeti, yonder, yucky


KEY
1. /ɪ/ Aberystwyth, gym, Powys,
2. /aɪ/ by, try, cry, deny
3. /i/ flirty, happy, lucky, scruffy, trolley, yucky (second "y")
4. /eɪ/ obey, sashay away, stray
5. /j/ yeti, yucky (first "y")

Pronunciation of digraphs beginning with the letter "a"

Ex. Look at the following words containing the letter "a" and put them in groups according to the sound that the digraph beginning with an "a" represents. The options include short vowels, long vowels and diphthongs.

1. /ɑː/ 2. /ɔː/ 3. /aʊ/ 4. /eɪ/ 5. /eə/ 6. /iː/ 7. /ɒ/

aardvark
aerial, algae,encyclopaedia, maelstrom
gait, hair, lair, maim
chaos, Laos, Taoism
auburn, auction, Australia, authority

KEY
1. /ɑː/ aardvark 2. /ɔː/ auburn, auction, authority 3. /aʊ/ Laos, Taoism
4. /eɪ/ chaos /'keɪɒs/, gait, maelstrom, maim,
5. /eə/ aerial (the second "a" is /ə/), hair, lair
6. /iː/ algae, encyclopaedia
7. /ɒ/ Australia

When in doubt, I consulted the Cambridge Dictionary at dictionary.cambridge.org.

Pronunciation of the letter "a"

English spelling is famous for its complex rules and the different ways in which it is connected to pronunciation. In today's exercise we are dealing with the pronunciation of "a".

Ex. 1. Look at the following words containing the letter "a" and put them in groups according to the sound that the letter "a" represents (sometimes together with letters next to it). The options include short vowels, the schwa, long vowels and diphthongs.

1. /ɑː/   2. /æ/   3. /ə/   4. /eɪ/   5. /eə/

above, air, among, ago, baker, bass, class, dance, father, gran, grant, mat, mate, mare, mayor, nag, part, sofa, stare, start, state, tan


Ex. 2. How does the pronunciation of the stressed vowel change in the following words?

1. nation - national   2. status - statutory   3. class - classic/classical   4. mass - massive
5. photograph - photography (consider both o's and the a)   6. base - basic
7. compare - comparison   8. parent - parental (consider the a and the e)


KEY
Ex. 1. 
1. /ɑː/  dance, father, grant, part, start
2. /æ/   class, gran, mat, nag, tan
3. /ə/   above, among, ago, sofa,
4. /eɪ/  baker, bass, mate, state
5. /eə/ air, mare, mayor, stare

Ex. 2.
1. /eɪ/ - /æ/

2. /eɪ/ - /æ/
3. /ɑː/ - /æ/

4. /æ/ Correction: no change ("mass" does not have /ɑː/)

5. first "o" /əʊ/ - /ə/, second "o" /ə/ - /ɒ/, "a" /ɑː/ - /ə/

6. /eɪ/ no change

7. /eə/ - /æ/

8. "a" /eə/ - /ə/, "e" /ᵊ/ - /e/ (the upper index schwa means it is optional)

When in doubt, I used the Cambridge Dictionary at https://dictionary.cambridge.org.

Homophones 1

Ex. Which of these words are homophones, that is words pronounced the same but spelt differently? Some of the following words do not match other words. The default accent is RP.

air, aren't, aunt, bare, bear, beat, beer, beet, boar, boor, bore, caught, court, ere, feat, feet, flew, flu, flue, hair, hare, heir, here, hoard, horde, hour, Lear, leer, mast, moor, more, must, our, pair, Paul, pear, peer, pier, pole, Pole, poll, root, route, sandwich, sand witch, shore, soar, sore, sure, weather, wet, whet, whether

KEY

air - ere - heir; aren't - aunt; bare - bear; beat - beet; boar - bore (and 'boor' unless we pronounce it /bʊə/) caught - court; feat - feet; flew - flu - flue, hair - hare; hoard - horde; hour - our; Lear - leer; moor (unless 'moor' is /mʊə/) - more; pair - pear; peer - pier; pole - Pole - poll; root - route; shore - sure (unless 'sure' is /ʃʊə/), soar - sore, wet - whet, weather - whether
no pair: beer, here, mast, must, Paul, sandwich (no /d/); sand witch

Update /'ʌpdeɪt/

As you can see, I have posted very little over the past year. This is something I hope to change in the near future since I am going to start teaching British English phonetics in October. This means that I'll do my best to post as many pronunciation exercises as possible, focusing on issues that are particularly relevant to native speakers of Polish. Unfortunately, I won't be able to include recordings - you'll have to make do with other sources such as howjsay.com. Stay tuned for more.

Punctuation: Gap filling and error correction

These exercises are a follow-up to my paper to be delivered on 23 July 2018 at the 4th English Teachers' Convention in Stryszawa, Poland. They focus on problems which are typical of Polish learners of English.

Ex. 1 Fill in the gaps with punctuation signs. In some gaps you do not need to use a sign.

1. This is the best comedy ___ I___ve ever seen. My friend didn___t like it at all ___ but I think it was hilarious.
2. After dinner ___ we went for a walk. The weather was very pleasant ___ it was warm and sunny.
3. I was in the waiting room. I had already read the magazine ___ that I___d bought one hour before ___ and there were still eight people before me. If I hadn ___t brought a book with me ___ I would have gone crazy.
4. I will not let you play computer games ___ unless you finish your homework by five.
5. We knew ___ Egypt was hot in July ___ S/still ___ we decided to fly to Sharm el-Sheikh ___ for a week.
6. My friend Jane Smith ___ who lives in a small village ___ says ___ that she misses London.
7. My brother ___ who works as a waiter ___ wants to open his own restaurant one day. (I have one brother)
8. My brother ___ who works as a waiter ___ wants to open his own restaurant one day. (I have two brothers)

Ex. 2. Each of the following sentences contains at least one punctuation error. Correct the sentences.

1. George asked me, if I was an English teacher. I said, that he must have mistaken me for Mr Kowalski who looks a little, like me. He said — Sorry, I expected him to arrive first.
2. Although, it was raining Jukka went swimming, he said he didnt mind, a bit of rain.
3. Ill help you do the dishes, if you read my essay and tell me, if its any good.
4. The textbook is entitled French Grammar — Phonology, Morphology and Syntax.
5. Ian paid 23.000,99 pounds for an old car.

KEY

Ex. 1.
1. This is the best comedy [none] I[']ve ever seen. My friend didn[']t like it at all [, / none] but I think it was hilarious. 2. After dinner [none/ ,] we went for a walk. The weather was very pleasant [: / — it was warm and sunny. 3. 3. I was in the waiting room. I had already read the magazine [none] that I[']d bought one hour before [,] and there were still eight people before me. If I hadn[']t brought a book with me [, / none] I would have gone crazy. 4. none, 5. We knew [none] Egypt was hot in July [. / ;] S/still [,] we decided to fly to Sharm el-Sheikh [none] for a week. 6. My friend Jane Smith [,] who lives in a small village [,] says [none] that she misses London. 7. two commas (a non-defining relative clause) 8. no commas (a defining relative clause)

Ex. 2.
1. George asked me [none] if I was an English teacher. I said [none] that he must have mistaken me for Mr Kowalski [,] who looks a little [none] like me. He said[,] [']Sorry, I expected him to arrive first['].
2. Although[,] it was raining [optional ,] Jukka went swimming [. / ;] he said he didn[']t mind [none] a bit of rain.
3. I[']ll help you do the dishes [none] if you read my essay and tell me [none] if it[']s any good.
4. The textbook is entitled French Grammar[:] Phonology, Morphology and Syntax. (an optional serial comma after 'Morphology')
5. 23,000.99

Emphatic inversion 2

Ex. Use emphatic inversion to paraphrase the following sentences so that the meaning remains as similar as possible.

1. We have seldom faced such a serious threat.
Seldom .............................................................
2. I have never witnessed so much cruelty.
Never ...............................................................
3. The novel was so popular that people queued for hours to buy a copy.
So .....................................................................
4. The book was in such great demand that people queued for hours to buy a copy.
Such .................................................................
5. The moment the sun came out, tourists flocked to the beach.
Hardly ..............................................................
6. As soon as Fiona began her lecture, the microphone broke down.
No sooner ........................................................
7. I didn't think she was in trouble at all.
Not for .............................................................
8. The children came home and only then realised their dog was missing.
Not until ..........................................................
9. The minister did not realise a detective was following him.
Little ...............................................................
10. The war caused not only a humanitarian crisis but also an economic one.
Not only..........................................................
11. You may be smart but you can't be lazy if you want to succeed.
Smart .............................................................
12. I like Tracy but I could never be her boyfriend.
Much .............................................................
13. The princess almost never talks about her private life.
Rarely ...........................................................
14. The student failed mathematics and often played truant.
Not only ........................................................
15. You can learn English only if you work hard.
Only .............................................. succeed ..................


KEY
1. Seldom have we faced such a serious threat. 2. Never have I witnessed so much cruelty. 3. So popular was the novel that people queued for hours to buy a copy. 4. Such was the demand for the book that ... 5. Hardly had the sun come out when tourists flocked to the beach. 6. No sooner had Fiona begun her lecture than the microphone broke down. 7. Not for a (single) moment did I think she was in trouble. 8. Not until the children came home did they realise their dog was missing. 9. Little did the minister realise that a detective was following him. 10. Not only did the war cause a humanitarian crisis, nut it also caused an economic crisis/one. 11. Smart as/though you are, you can't be lazy if you want to succeed. 12. Much as I like Tracy, I could never be her boyfriend. 13. Rarely does the princess talk about her private life. 14. Not only did the student fail mathematics, but he/she also often played truant. 15. Only by working hard can you succeed in learning English.

Gerunds and infinitives: base, perfect, passive and continuous forms

Ex. Put the verbs in brackets in the correct non-finite form. Add a preposition where necessary.

1. Nobody likes (criticise) or (laugh) at.
2. Einstein is sometimes said (fail) mathematics at school, which is not true.
3. The ninja was dressed in black to avoid (see) by his enemies.
4. It's necessary for the project (complete) by Friday.
5. I'd love (live) in Ancient China.
6. Shakespeare is thought by some (have) a ghostwriter.
7. Miss Grumble made us (study) hard. We were also made (learn) poems by heart.
8. Hugh apologised to Jill (call) her incompetent.
9. Only you can prevent forest fires (happen).
10. The man denied (be) in the victim's house that night.
11. In the end George was coerced (make) a confession.
12. Joseph Conrad is considered (be) one of the greatest masters of English prose.
13. He never admits (make) mistakes.
14. Where are you, Jack? You're supposed (work) in your office.
15. Frank was accused (steal) his great-aunt's jewellery.
16. During the scandal the politician was believed (hide) on a private island.
17. Did you see the chicken (cross) the road?
18. Would you mind (help) me (translate) this text?
19. Don't waste your time (try) to call him. His phone is always turned off.
20. The decision has been made - there's no point (discuss) it now.

KEY
1. being criticised, (being) laughed, 2. to have failed, 3. being seen, 4. to be completed, 5. to have lived, 6. to have had, 7. study, to study, 8. for calling/for having called, 9. from happening, 10. being/having been, 11. into making, 12. to be/to have been, 13. making, 14. to be working, 15. of stealing/of having stolen, 16. to be hiding, 17. cross/crossing, 18. helping, (to) translate, 19. trying, 20. discussing